fter the 21st April meeting between Henry VI and his advisors (from which York and his supporters had been excluded), summonses were issued to the nobility calling them to a council to be held at Leicester on the 21 May. York, recognising this as a possible trap, set out from the north accompanied by Salisbury and Warwick with the aim of intercepting the King. Throughout his march he wrote to the King pledging his loyalty but calling for the removal of Somerset. On the morning of 22 May with Buckingham replacing Somerset as commander of the Lancastrian forces the King set out for St Alban's and reached there about the same time as the Yorkists. Taking up positions in the town, the Lancastrians, much to York's frustration, continued to strengthen the defences while both sides attempted to parley. Eventually, at around 10 o'clock the Yorkists attacked the gates of the town but were held as men rushed to the defences and begin to inflict heavy casualties in the narrow streets.

Richard Neville "Warwick the Kingmaker"	The Battle of St. Albans © Graham Turner (link) One of Ecorcheur's founder members was the model for the standard bearer.

Warwick then found a route through some back gardens and came upon the market square, splitting the Lancastrians who fled from the gates allowing the remainder of the Yorkist army to break through and join the fight that had developed in the market square where the king had remained throughout the battle. The Yorkists then obtained the king's forgiveness for the battle and the next day returned to London led by Warwick with the royal sword and the king flanked by York and Salisbury.

nce again a parliament was held and York excluded. York and Salisbury were at their estates in the north and Warwick was raiding Spanish shipping to support the Calais garrison as funding from the Lancastrian controlled treasury was non-existent. At the council in April at Coventry the Yorkist leaders were accused of treason and as a result York realised that he had to act and sent for Salisbury and Warwick to join him at Ludlow. His aim was to join battle with the Lancastrians and seize control of the king. Warwick reached Ludlow from Calais and once Salisbury left Middleham Margaret attempted everything in her power to ensure that he didn't reach Ludlow.

Margaret of Anjou Depicted in the windows of Mucklestone Church, from where she was believed to have observed the battle.	The standard of Lord Audley

Salisbury's army and the Lancastrian force met at Blore Heath on the morning of the 23 September. Salisbury had arrayed his force on a slight ridge with a stream in front of him and a wooded area to the rear. He withdrew his centre and encouraged the Lancastrians to advance. The Lancastrians, under Audley, advanced their cavalry who came under withering arrow fire as the Yorkists returned to their original position. During a second attack Audley himself was killed and the majority of the Lancastrian cavalry then dismounted and advanced on foot. The fierce hand to hand fighting lasted well into the afternoon until the remaining Lancastrian cavalry withdrew from the field. The line then began to give ground and eventually, with some Lancastrians changing sides, the line broke and the remnants of the Lancastrian forces fled pursued by the Yorkists.

ollowing the battle at Blore Heath, Salisbury withdrew to Ludlow joining Warwick and York. The Lancastrian army advanced on Ludlow but found the Yorkists waiting for them south of Ludlow at Ludford Bridge. The Lancastrian army outnumbered the Yorkists by 2 or 3 to 1 and during the night before the battle many of the Yorkists changed side most notably Andrew Trollope and the Calais army. As a result the Yorkist lords felt it prudent to flee with York and his son Edmund traveling to Ireland and Warwick, Edward and Salisbury returning to Calais.

Ludford Bridge depicted in a turn-of-the-century watercolour

arwick returned to England on the 26 June landing at Sandwich with an army of 1500-2000 men before advancing on the capital which he reached on the 2 July with an army that had grown to some 20000. The king meanwhile had left Coventry and was heading south for Northampton where he established and artillery park and waited for reinforcements. Warwick was unsure of Henry's whereabouts and so split his army but by the time they reached Dunstable they had rejoined and advanced on Northampton. Warwick's attempts to speak with the king were rebuffed and so at around 2 o'clock the Yorkists advanced in pouring rain but were held up by the soft ground and an intense barrage of Lancastrian archery. The Lancastrians were unable to use their cannon due to the rain and when Lord Grey laid down his arms and invited the Yorkists through the defences the battle was lost.

Humphrey Stafford
Duke of Buckingham
Killed at the Battle of Northamption

ork had been unable to capitalise on the victory at Northampton. His claim to the throne was not supported by the lords and although named as heir to Henry by way of compromise he had to fight to protect his estates in the north from a Lancastrian army located at Pontefract. York left London and skirmished his way back to the north arriving at Sandal Castle on the 21 December. The castle was not well provisioned and ill prepared for the loose siege which the Lancastrians established after a Yorkist foraging party ran into the main body of the Lancastrian army. York knew the rest of the Lancastrian army was on its way from Pontefract and recognised that swift action was needed if he was not to be trapped.

The Battle of Wakefield © Graham Turner (link)	Wakefield bridge today

On the morning of the 30 December York sallied forth and, in good order, his army of 5000 engaged the Lancastrian vanward on Wakefield green. Unknown to him the remainder of the Lancastrian army had deployed during the night. Once battle raged they surrounded the Yorkists, cutting of their retreat, and within half an hour the Yorkists had been defeated and 2-3000 men lay dead. Worst of all for the Yorkists, York himself lay dead along with many of their best captains. Salisbury was captured and executed then next day and York's son, Edmund, was murdered by Clifford on Wakefield Bridge.

ork's 17 year old son Edward was raising an army in Wales when he head the news of his father's death. He realised that he must join Warwick in London. He was also aware of a Lancastrian army under Owen Tudor and it was this that he decided to destroy first. The opposing armies met at Mortimer's Cross on the 2 February where, at 10 o'clock in the morning was seen a curious phenomenon "three suns shining full clear". The young Edward took this to be an omen for good and this was the origin of the Yorkist "Sunne in Splendour".

An example of a "Sun dog" or parhelia, widely believed to be the phenomenon which inspired the "three suns" tale.

On the 3 February the armies arrayed and the forces engaged. The Lancastrian left came under heavy fire from the archers on Edward's right and fell back into the vanward. The Yorkists then charged the Lancastrian's and within half an hour the Lancastrian army was routed.

n January, Margaret of Anjou's army led by Somerset, left the north and traveled south towards London plundering and looting as it came. Eventually Warwick left London with around 12000 men and traveled to St Albans arriving on the 13 February were the Yorkists spent the next three days digging in and preparing their defences. The Lancastrian's pushed on and on the 16 February overran a Yorkist outpost at Dunstable. This information did not reach Warwick or was not believed and as a result the Yorkist army was not correctly arrayed, indeed it was facing the wrong way.

Early in the morning on the 17 February the Lancastrian army arrived in St Albans taking the Yorkists army by surprise, even the gates were open and unmanned. They were held by Yorkist archers while Warwick attempted to re-deploy his army. The Lancastrians were initially forced back but eventually occupied the town after a pincer movement trapped the Yorkist archers in the market square.

Henry VI allegedly spent the battle sitting under a tree, singing.

The Lancastrians, after a brief respite, attacked the Yorkist front line commanded by Lord Montague. He sent for help to Warwick but the messenger had difficulty in finding Warwick's army in the tall hedgerows and narrow lanes. The same hampered Warwick in bringing up his army and, leaving his infantry, he brought his cavalry to the battle but too late. Montague had been captured and the Lancastrians were advancing on Warwick's position. Returning to his army he he found them fleeing in the dark and in his absence. He rallied around 4000 of them and withdrew in good order. Warwick had lost control of King Henry and his only option was to join up with Edward and return to London.

dward had been crowned king on 4 March and this gave England two kings. Edward recognised the need to defeat the Lancastrian army which was now in Yorkshire. He split his force and they set of for the north raising troops as they went and when they all arrived in Doncaster it is reported that the army numbered between 30-43000 men. Pushing north an advance guard clashed with the Lancastrians at Ferrybridge but soon threw them back. The next day, the 27 March, the Lancastrians regained the bridge but were repelled on the 28 Mar by the vanguard of Edward's army and a flanking attack by Lord Fauconburg. Edward then crossed the rest of his army across the river and arrayed them south of Saxton village and less than a mile form the Lancastrian line. They had little food and it was a bitterly cold night.

The Battle of Towton © Graham Turner (link)

The following morning dawned cold and as the soldiers prepared themselves for battle it came onto snow, at first blowing into the faces of the Yorkists and then changing direction at around 9 o'clock and blowing into the faces of the Lancastrians. The Yorkist archers then advance d and opened fire. The Lancastrians returned fore but their arrows fell short due to the wind. The Yorkists returned Lancastrian arrows as well wreaking havoc and forcing Somerset to advance and engage the Yorkist line. Due to the sheer wait of numbers the Yorkist line gave ground and when a contingent of Lancastrian light cavalry attacked from Castle Hill wood it took all the Yorkist reserve to hold them. Norfolk eventually joined the battle in the afternoon and this allowed the Yorkists to push the Lancastrian line back on itself. It started to fold and men started to flee eventually turning into a rout as soldiers tried to cross the Cock Beck. So many died here that it gained the name Bloody Meadow. No quarter was given and the rout continued throughout the day through Towton to Tadcaster.

Lead Chapel nr. Towton Built to commemorate the dead of the Battle. Lead village no longer exists, but the chapel remains.

Thus ended the largest and bloodiest battle fought on British soil. Around 60000 men had taken part and about 26000 lay dead.

ord Montague was sent to the border to escort some Scottish envoys to a meeting at York. By the time he left Newcastle he had a force of 5000 men and he came upon the Lancastrians under the Duke of Somerset 9 miles north west of Alnwick at Hedgley Moor. After the usual exchange of archer fire Montague was somewhat surprised to see one third of the Lancastrian army run away. More disconcerting for Sir Ralph Percy was to be left with just his retainers when the Lancastrian commander Somerset left as the line gave way under the Yorkist assault. Hopelessly outnumbered, the Lancastrians fought bravely but were overwhelmed in a short time.

aving delivered the Scottish envoys to York, Montague returned to Newcastle where he received news that the Lancastrian army was at Hexham. Never one to pass up a fight he traveled immediately to Hexham where he found Somerset and his men rousing themselves from sleep. Somerset was forced to line up with the river to his rear and facing Montague who had the high ground in front of him. Montague led the centre in a charge downhill and smashed into the Lancastrian line forcing it back and the rear ranks into the river where many drowned. One flank took advantage and escaped over a ford. The line broke and fled pursued by the Yorkists; Somerset was captured and executed the next day.

n the run up to the battle Edward was at Nottingham and Warwick was in London raising an army to take on Edward's. The rebellion in the North had been created by Warwick and its hero, Robin of Reedsdale (editors note: a pseudonym of a trusted Neville captain, Sir William Conyers), and his army were traveling south to join Warwick, bypassing Edward. The Yorkist army under Pembroke and Devon were traveling north to join Edward. On the 25 July they argued over billeting arrangements and spent the night separated by a stream. During this night they became aware of Reedsdale and his army and this rebel force attacked Pembroke's Welshmen "in a playne byyonde Banbury toune." Pembroke lacked Devon's archers and had to give ground. Later on the rebels attacked again and were then aided by an advance guard of Warwick's army arriving from London. The Welshman assumed that the advance guard was the whole force and fled the field leaving some two thousand of their countrymen dead.

As a result of this battle Edward was left undefended and gave himself up into Warwick's custody.

dward had left Clarence in London and headed north to join the army being mustered at Grantham with a view to putting down the rebellious army heading south under the control of Sir Robert Welles. Edward still supposed that Warwick and Clarence were to aid him but when he heard, on the 11 March that the rebels, Warwick and Clarence were all converging on Leicester he realised the worst. Edward held Welle's father captive and at this news Welles marched his army to a place 5 mile west of Stamford and arrayed it for battle. Edward lined his force up opposing them and then had Welles' father summarily executed. At this the rebels advanced but after the king's cannon had opened fire followed by Edward's charge the battle turned into a rout.

As the rebels fled they discarded their livery coats hence the name "Losecoat Field".

dward had returned to England on the 14 March and had arrived in London in London on 11 April. Taking control of Henry VI he mustered his army and on hearing that the Lancastrians under Warwick and Oxford were at St Albans he left London with around 10000 men to give battle. He arrived at Barnet on the night of the 13 April and arrayed his force in the dark. As a result the two armies were much closer than they realised and as a result Warwick spent the night harmlessly firing his cannon over the heads of Edward's soldiers.

The Memorial of the Battle at Hadley Green	The Battle of Barnet © Chris Collingwood (link) Depicting the chaos in the fog.

The next morning dawned very foggy and without realising it the two armies had lined up overlapping each other and as they engaged the Lancastrians took advantage and enveloped the right flank attacking it from behind. Warwick shored up with the other flank but the lines still rotated through 90 degrees. Oxford successfully routed the Yorkist flank and chased them all the way to Barnet. When Oxford regrouped and returned to the battle didn't account for the change in lines and ended up attacking the Lancastrian lines in the fog. The Lancastrians cried treason and in the ensuing confusion Edward pushed home the attack. The Yorkists then pursued and looted the fleeing Lancastrian army. Warwick in trying to flee did not make it to his horse and was felled by Yorkist men at arms.

fter the Battle of Barnet, Edward returned to London where he learned of the landing of Margaret of Anjou and a Lancastrian expeditionary force at Weymouth on the 14 April. Edward left London with a new army on 19 April and headed west. His difficulty lay in that he was unaware of the exact whereabouts of Margaret's army. She was maximising this by sending out small contingents of the army to confuse Edward. The evening of the 3 May found Margaret's army at Tewksbury on the English side of the river hoping to cross into Wales the next day and praying that Edward wouldn't catch up.

The Battle of Tewkesbury © Graham Turner (link)	Tewkesbury Abbey, where it is said Edward (son of Margaret of Anjou and Henry VI) lies buried.

Edward's army had marched over 30 miles that day, an incredible feat, and arrived 3 miles short of Tewksbury to camp for the night. The following morning he broke camp and marched to Tewksbury lining up opposite the Lancastrians. Although fairly evenly matched in size, the Lancastrians had the better ground. Edward, however, had far more artillery and many more archers and set up a devastating barrage. Somerset, for the Lancastrians, advances as did Edward's army but at a pre-determined point Somerset wheeled his men to come at the Yorkist wing at both the flank and the rear. This wing, commanded by the 18 year old Duke of Gloucester, held this challenge at a hedge and, supported by Edward's men in the rear forced the Lancastrians back. At this point a group of light Yorkist cavalry hidden in a small wood charged the Lancastrian line form the rear. Somerset's men fled towards the River Severn hotly pursued by Gloucester's men. Edward steadied his men and dispatched the remnants of the Lancastrian army; on this occasion no quarter being given. Significantly the Prince of Wales was killed either during the battle of during the rout thus ending the Lancastrian claim to the throne.

ichard III waited for news of Henry Tudor's landing at Nottingham. He was still relying on Stanley and Rhys ap Thomas to stop Henry but by the beginning of August he was aware of Stanley's treachery. He also realised that many of his nobles had either joined Tudor or seemed intent on staying away. On the 17 August Richard left Nottingham for the muster at Leicester. Henry passed through Lichfield heading towards Bosworth and on the night of the 21 August Richard also arrived spending the night at Sutton Cheney. Henry spent the night at Whitemoors having already consulted with the Stanleys.

The Church of St. James, Sutton Cheney
Reputedly the site where Richard III heard his last mass
before the Battle of Bosworth

On the morning of the battle Richard marched his men, in column, to the slight rise known as Ambion Hill. Henry had also tried to reach the hill first but found himself facing a marsh and was forced to wheel his men around it. (There remains a great deal of debate about the actual location of the battle and the disposition of forces) The two vanguards were facing each other and the location of the Stanleys was probably to the north or south of the battle line. Neither commander can have failed to recognise the significance of their wait and see policy. The battle opened with a short exchange of cannon and archery fire before both vanguards advanced to engage half way down the hill. While the Stanleys refused to commit the day must surely be Richard's for he was undoubtedly the better commander and had the better position.

The Battle of Bosworth © Graham Turner (link)
Richard III charges down Henry's standard bearer

Exactly what happened next is unknown. Tudor probably rode for the Stanleys (or one of them) in an attempt to get them to commit to the battle. Richard spotting him in the open led a charge of his knights down the hill and succeeded in killing his standard bearer so it is likely that Henry came close to losing his life. At this point the Stanleys joined in and Richard, unhorsed, was dragged down and killed. Throughout the battle Northumberland, in command of Richard's rearguard, did not take part in the battle.

Thus fell the last Plantagenet King and allowed the start of the Tudor Dynasty.

The Gloucesters at The Bosworth Memorial

he Wars of the Roses did not really end with the Battle of Bosworth. Henry Tudor was still not secure on his throne for many years, if ever. Viscount Lovell, Richard's friend had escaped from Bosworth and had led a series of uprisings throughout the north. In June 1487 he was in command of a rebel army heading for Newark and the opportunity to fight the King's army. On the night of the 15 June they were camped near a small village called East Stoke. Henry's army was camped at Radcliffe not far away but neither army was aware of the other. On the day of the battle, Henry eventually triumphed over the largely mercenary Yorkist army after a difficult battle that could so easily have gone in the Yorkist's favour.